Historical Chronology of Jammu and Kashmir State by Narender Sehgal

Historical Chronology of Jammu and Kashmir State by Narender Sehgal

Reproduced from: 

Converted Kashmir - Memorial of Mistakes

http://www.kashmir-information.com/ConvertedKashmir/index.html 

A Bitter Saga of Religious Conversion 

Author: Narender Sehgal 

Utpal Publications, 1994

Historical Chronology of Jammu and Kashmir State

App. 3000 B.C.: Kashmir clan is named in Mahabharata.

2629-2564 B.C.: Rule by King Sandiman.

2082-2041 B.C.: Rule by King Sunder Sen rules Kashmir.

1048-1008 B.C.: King Nara rules Kashmir.

250 B.C.: Shrinagari (today's Srinagar is located about three miles from Shrinagari) near the ancient capital Pandhrenatha is founded by Ashoka the Great.

7th century: King Lalitaditya builds the famous Sun temple and formed the city of Pharihaspura.

813-850: Pampore was founded by Padma, during the rule of King Ajatapida

855-883: King Avantivarman builds the town of Avantipur and the famous Sun temple.

883-902: King Shankaravarman builds Shankarapura-pattan (now known as Pattan).

1128-1149: Reign of King Jayasim.

mid-12th: Muslim invasion of Kashmir.

1322 Turks, under ferocious Zulkadur Khan, first invade Kashmir.

1394-1416: Central Asian ruler, Sikander invades Kashmir and brings about mass conversion to Islam. After the tyranny of Sikander was over, only eleven Kashmiri Hindu families survive.

1540: Mirz Haidar, a relative of Humayun (of the Moghul invader dynasty) conquers Kashmir. Kashmir gradually absorbed into Moghul Empire.

1810-1820: Maharajah Ranjit Singh, one of the greatest rulers of India, regains Jammu and appointed his Dogra feudatory Gulab Singh to rule the State.

Mar 16, 1846: The present State is created by a treaty between the British East India Company acting on behalf of the British Government and Maharajah Gulab Singh in Amritsar.

1931: One of the worst communal riots led by Sheikh Abdullah and his Muslim Conference.

1939: Muslim Conference becomes the National Conference.

Aug 15, 1947: India gains independence. The ruler of Kashmir, Maharaja Hari Singh yet to make up his mind regarding accession.

Oct 22, 1947: Pakistan violates the Standstill Agreement by preventing essential supplies to the State, then hoards of armed Pakistani tribesman entered Kashmir.

Oct 26, 1947: Hari Singh signs the instrument of accession, it is no different than the one signed by over 500 other rulers. The accession of Kashmir was accepted by the Governor General of India Lord Mountbatten.

Oct 27, 1947: The first Indian forces arrived in Kashmir to defend against Pakistani troops.

Dec 31, 1947: A highly unconstitutional offer of plebiscite was made by Prime Minister Nehru in the U.N.

Jan 1, 1948: India under Nehru declares a unilateral cease-fire and under Article 35 of the U.N. Charter, India files a complaint with the U.N. Security Council. Pakistan still controls 2/5 of the State.

Jan 20, 1948: The U.N. Security Council in its resolution of establishes the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan (UNCIP).

Jul 1948: Mohd. Zafrulla Khan, then the Foreign Minister of Pakistan and principal Delegate of Pakistan in the U.N. admits to the U.N. Commission for India and Pakistan that the Pakistani Army had been in Kashmir.

Aug 13, 1948: UNCIP adopts a resolution on Kashmir accepted by both India and Pakistan. Pakistan is blamed for the invasion of Kashmir and is instructed to withdraw its forces from Kashmir.

Jan 1, 1949: Amidst great tension, one minute before midnight, India and Pakistan concluded a formal cease fire agreement.

Jan 5, 1949: Almost a year after Nehru's offer of plebiscite, the UNCIP passes a resolution that states that, "The question of accession of the state of Jammu and Kashmir to India or Pakistan will be decided through the democratic method of free and impartial plebiscite". However, Pakistan has yet to comply with the earlier resolution and withdraw from the State. Also, Pakistan is now busy changing the demographic composition of the State.

1949: Not withstanding the opposition by several authors of the Indian Constitution, including Dr. Ambedkar, its chief architect, Article 370 was inserted in the constitution of India. This article is meant as a temporary measure, to be in effect until the formal constitution of Jammu and Kashmir is drafted.

Jun 1948: Sheikh Abdullah declares, "We the people of Jammu and Kashmir, have thrown our lot with Indian people not in the heat of passion or a moment of despair, but by a deliberate choice. The union of our people has been fused by the community of ideals and common sufferings in the cause of freedom".

1949: Following the cabinet decision taken by the Abdullah Government, Hari Singh steps down. Hari Singh's son, Karan Singh is named his successor.

Apr 1950 UN Security Council appoints Sir Owen Dixon as the UN representative in place of UNCIP to find expeditious and enduring solution to the India-Pakistan dispute over Kashmir.

Oct 1950: General Council of the National Conference demands elections to create a Constituent Assembly.

Sep 1951: Elections for the Constituent Assembly are held The National Conference wins all 45 seats unopposed.

Oct 1951: Constituent Assembly of the State of Jammu and Kashmir is inaugurated.

Nov 5, 1951: The Constituent Assembly is given four tasks by Sheikh Abdullah which including the accession to India.

Nov-Dec 1951: Karan Singh steps down as the ruler, and is elected by the Constituent Assembly of the Jammu and Kashmir State as Sardar- i-Riyasat (Governor).

1952: Jana Sangh begins campaign called "Ek Vidhan Ek Pradhan" (One Constitution, one leader) and demands that the State of Jammu and Kashmir be totally integrated into India and that the people from the other States be able to visit Jammu and Kashmir without a passport.

1952: Jana Sang leader Shyamaprasad Mukherjee dies in a Kashmiri Jail under mysterious circumstances.

Aug 9, 1953: Sheikh Abdullah is arrested. He had turned corrupt and autocrat. He tried to hold India for ransom by giving increasingly anti-India speeches and preserve his power.

Feb 1954: Under the leadership of Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad DEMOCRATICALLY ELECTED Constituent Assembly of the State of Jammu and Kashmir ratified the State's accession to India.

May 14, 1954: The President of India promulgates the Constitution (Application to Jammu and Kashmir) Order placing on a final footing the applicability of the other provisions of the Indian Constitution to Jammu and Kashmir.

1956: Constitution (Seventh Amendment) Act 1956, the category of Part B State was aboilished and Jammu and Kashmir was included as one of the States of India under Article I. However, Article 370 of the Indian constitution is still retained.

Jan 26, 1957: After the formal inauguration of its constitution, the Constituent Assembly dissolves itself.

1958: All-India services extended to J and K through an amendment in Article 312.

1964: Sheikh Abdullah released from the prison.

1965: Pakistan attacks India, in operation code named, Gibraltar. The defeat of Pakistan results in the Tashkent Agreement between the two countries.

Mar 30, 1965: Article 249 of Indian Constitution extended to Jammu and Kashmir whereby the center could legislate on any matter enumerated in state list (just like in any other State in the Union). Designations like Prime Minister and President of the State are replace by Chief Minister and Governor.

1971: Pakistani attack on India results in the third war between the two countries. Pakistan is completely defeated, over 90,000 of its men surrendered.

1972: India and Pakistan sign the Shimla Pact. Two agree to respect the line of control until the issue is finally resolved.

Feb 24-25, 1975: Following an accord signed by Prime Minister Indira Gandhi and Sheikh Abdullah on February 24, 1975, Jammu and Kashmir is made a "Constituent Unit" of India on February 25, 1975. Through this accord Indian Parliament reaffirms its right to legislate on any matter concerning the territory of the State.

1977: National Conference wins the first post-Emergency elctions.

1982: Sheikh Abdullah nominates his son, Farooq Abdullah as his successor setting up a political rivalry between Farooq Abdullah and his brother-in-law G. M. Shah.

1986: In one of the most shameful acts of religious massacre, several ancient historical Hindu temples are destroyed and scores of Hindus were killed in the city of Anantnag. Chief Minister G. M. Shah loses power to his brother-in-law Farooq Abdullah.

1990-1991: In a spate of terrorist violence, 2400 people have died so far, and 300,000 people have been driven out of their homes. Pakistan's involvement in this carnage of violence is beyond doubt.

Reproduced from: 

Converted Kashmir - Memorial of Mistakes

http://www.kashmir-information.com/ConvertedKashmir/index.html 

A Bitter Saga of Religious Conversion 

Author: Narender Sehgal 

Utpal Publications, 1994

Hinduism and Democracy: A Comparison by Ashok M. Kuber, PhD

Hinduism and Democracy: A Comparison by Ashok M. Kuber, PhD Source: www.prlog.org

May 10, 2010 – The basic principles of democracy were embedded in Indian Civilizations and its religions long before they occurred in the West. Democracy in Europe was born in people’s struggle against Church and ruthless rulers. Democracy is not limited to elections and majority rule. More importantly, democracy involves freedom of expression and liberty – along with equal opportunities and protection of all minorities. Throughout history, religions of Indian origin have imbedded these principles in their belief. 

Hindu scriptures, Vedas, are a collection of teachings from over many thousand years. Hinduism allows followers to interpret scriptures according to the current times. 

Dogmatic interpretation and its forceful execution are not a part of Hinduism, as it has been with Islam and Christianity.  These religions often ignore the basic teachings of their founders. 

Hinduism does not seek converts.  No forceful or violent conversion, no religious wars with Christians, Jews, Jains, Sikhs, Buddhists, atheists occurred until Islam came to India . You can become Hindu by your own free will by accepting Bhagavad-Gita, essence of Vedas spoken by Lord Krishna as a final authority. The mythology of Purana or the great epics Ramayana or Mahabharata explain the Vedas to common people in a simple way. Numerous sects of Hinduism co-exist peacefully under the supreme guidance from the Vedas. 

Hinduism offers lots of freedom to operate. An individual decides his Guru, and follows him or her. When many devotees come together a sect is formed.  Like democracy, the people select a leader. Sects come and go like political parties in a dynamic democracy. 

Often, those of other faiths portray Hinduism as a religion of confusion. It is like communist or a dictator might consider democracy as a confused state where the news media, congressmen, senators, the president and scholars challenges each other dramatically and sometimes unreasonably. Like American democracy, where challenging a President or burning a flag is tolerated - Hinduism tolerates challenges. Contrast to Hinduism, Christianity and Islam offer very limited freedom and tolerance for other faiths. 

According to Hinduism, there are different paths to reach God, just like there are many ways to reach the top of the mountain. As you go higher, differences between them are reduced. Anyone who believes that his is the only way to reach God is full of ignorance just like a frog in a well unable to comprehend the outside world. Bhagavad-Gita suggests the following Yogas to reach God:  Knowledge, Devotion, Meditation, and Karma. Karma Yoga is pure selfless service. Missionary service is not Karma Yoga, as missionaries hope to convert people to their faith and thus expand their power base to reestablish domination of the church which will ultimately curtail democracy. 

Vedas means knowledge. It is not only religious rituals with chanting of hymns, but it includes philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, medicine, and grammar. When philosophy is the origin of religion, it permits freedom of speech and thought, and acknowledges Atheism. Just like democracy, Hinduism accepts Atheists as equal citizens. 

About 2300 years ago India peacefully became predominantly Buddhist during the Maurya Empire. During that period, Takshila University was the center of learning Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism and Atheism.  Also, Nalanda University was formed 2000 years ago with its 10,000 students and 1500 teachers. In the 8th century Hindu Guru Shankracharya debated one to one Hindu, Jain, Buddhist and Atheist women and men gurus who upon defeat accepted his synthesis of Vedic metaphysics philosophy and India became again predominantly Hindu. 

According to Hindu philosophy there is one GOD, an eternal, formless, supreme, all pervading spirit. Observed multiplicity in the Universe is just like the waves in the ocean - they come and go. Waves are nothing but sea water which is the only essence, just as the supreme spirit is the only essence (the underlying reality). As a Hindu, one is free to worship a formless GOD in any form and name one wish. As you progress spiritually, you will realize the absolute invisible all pervading supreme spirit. No one is between you and GOD. Religion and the holy man just give you the direction, but they are not the end. This assures individual freedom and discourages dictatorial control with its abuses. 

Ridicule of the caste system in Hinduism by others is extremely overdone. Critics must look at their own history of religious wars, bloody conversion and annihilation of natives in occupied lands.  The caste system was a class system not by birth but by profession:  Labor, Merchants, Ruler (warriors) and Brahmin (teachers and preachers). The King and his ministers collectively ruled the kingdom according to very strict ethic rules given in the Vedas which protect freedom and liberty. Brahmins were mainly teachers until the later part of the Buddhist period (6 A.D.), when they started temples and idol worshipping and were mainly involved in the religious rituals. At about that time, they became Brahmins by birth in order to protect their livelihood. Movement between other classes was more or less free. 

Chanakya of Takshila University, who contributed economics in the Vedas, uprooted the Greek Alexander's rule from India and established the Maurya Empire by appointing his student, who was born in the labor class, as a king. The great sages, who wrote the most important Hindu scriptures Puranas, Mahabharata and Ramayana, were born in the labor class! 

The caste system already coexisted and there were no real conflict between the groups. Untouchability is often misunderstood and Hinduism has nothing to do with it. Untouchables were outclass persons who had committed crimes. In other civilizations, criminals and their family were killed. In India , they were put out of society and given cleaning jobs. Unfortunately, their families remained untouchables for subsequent generations. The efforts of Hindu reformers and the civil rights laws have brought the untouchables back into society - resulting in the election of an untouchable as President of India in 1997. 

In AD 52, the apostle St. Thomas came to South India . His followers known as Syrian Christians were free to practice their apostolic faith. However, during the Portuguese colonial rule, the Catholic Church forcefully absorbed them. Next the British rule came and the Protestant Church ruled them. After India became independent, the followers reestablished the Syrian Christian Church of India free from European control. When Jews and Zoroastrians (Parsis) came to India to escape persecution, they were given shelter and were free to practice their faith. Contributions of these relatively miniscule minorities to India have been immense, and their success in every aspect of life is striking. In India non Hindus including Christians and Muslims have occupied many top positions including president and prime minister without a single threat of violence against them from the 80% majority Hindus. 

Recently, America broke the racial barrier by electing the first black president. Even though there is freedom to practice any religion in western nations, most of them have Christianity as a state religion. US constitution states only separation between state and church. In reality, USA is not a secular nation. America and the West have a long way to go to break the religious barriers in order to catch up with India .  For Islamic democratic countries, even separation of state and religion is a mere dream. A real democracy requires secularism in practice and India is the only major nation who can claim this. The credit goes to Hinduism. 

The author is thankful to Dr. Dilip Amin and Mr. Sam Barnabas for valuable suggestions. 

Ashok M. Kuber, PhD 

Lansdale, PA 

Contributed to www.InterfaithShaadi.org

A mammoth Mahabharata series begins admirably --- M. Veerappa Moily is Union law minister THE MAHABHARATA: Volume 1 Translated by BIBEK DEBROY

A mammoth Mahabharata series begins admirably

http://epaper.indianexpress.com/IE/IEH/2010/05/29/ArticleHtmls/29_05_2010_025_052.shtml?Mode=1

M. Veerappa Moily is Union law minister THE MAHABHARATA: Volume 1 Translated by BIBEK DEBROY Penguin Pages: 536 Rs 550

THE Mahabharata, together with the Ramayana, is one of the greatest stories ever told.

These two epics have influenced norms, values and culture not just in India, but elsewhere in Southeast Asia too. Hinduism is difficult to pinpoint and define. Nor is Hinduism only manifested in Sanskrit texts, a point Wendy Doniger makes in her recent The Hindus: An Alternative History (2009). The Sanskrit corpus itself is huge, spanning the Vedas, Vedanta, Vedangas, Smritis, Puranas and the Dharmashastras, not to speak of classical Sanskrit literature. However, popular attitudes are often shaped not by the Vedanta literature, or even the Gita, and the speculations of religious philosophers, but by the stories recounted in the two epics and the Puranas. It is said that even before Valmiki could pen his Ramayana in Sanskrit, many folk Ramayanas had been orally passed from one generation to the next. The imagery of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata recurs in our everyday life and jargon.

The Valmiki Ramayana, thus, isn't the only Ramayana. I myself have written an epic poem Sree Ramayana Mahanveshanam in Kannada, which has now been translated into English and other languages. If we wish to communicate our history, myths and culture to the rest of the world, English naturally becomes the medium. It is easy to blame westerners for having got the nuances wrong, but the appropriate response would be for us Indians to do the rendering, instead of waiting for modern-day Max Muellers.

The Sanskrit Valmiki Ramayana now has an authenticated and critical edition, brought out by the Oriental Institute in Baroda. And the Vedavyasa Mahabharata too has an authenticated and critical edition, brought out by the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune.

It is somewhat surprising that English translations of these texts are not yet available. Abridged translations often fail to capture the nuances and the emotions of all the characters.

An unabridged translation of the Mahabharata is therefore welcome and it is surprising that Bibek Debroy, who is known more as an economist (though I have personally known him as one interested in law reform), should have embarked on this venture. It is another matter that he has already translated the Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas and the Gita.

This is the first of 10 volumes and covers the period from the beginning to the Pandavas' obtaining their share of the kingdom. Volume 1 thus covers most of Adi Parva and runs into almost 500 pages. From this, one can gauge the size of the entire Mahabharata and the scope of the endeavour Debroy has embarked on. There is also an excellent introduction that sets the background.

We all have our favourite version of the Mahabharata, translated into English in unabridged form. For many of my generation, Rajaji's versions of both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata must figure on that list, because of easy-to-read English. Debroy's translation is easy and smooth as well, compared with the 19th century translations of K.M. Ganguli and M.N. Dutt (which predated Bhan darkar's Critical Edition) or even the half-complete University of Chicago version (which was based on Bhandarkar). I only hope Debroy can speed up his translation, so that we do not have to wait five years for all of the 10 volumes to be available.

There seems to be a resurgence of interest in the epics. Gurcharan Das authored a book based on the Mahabharata. There is the Clay series, based on vernacular versions of the Mahabharata, now funded by N.R. Narayana Murthy. There has been my effort as well as the present one by Debroy. I am not sure why this should suddenly happen.

Although the Ramayana and the Mahabharata have always been of interest, much before the TV serials happened, the last time there was this great enthusiasm seems to have been in the second half of the 19th century. Nor is it obvious to me why there should be this interest on the part of those who are not quite run-of-the-mill Indologists or Sanskrit scholars. 

Whatever be the reason, an accurate rendering of our history and culture is welcome, because it neutralises attempts by right-wing fundamentalist groups to hijack what they perceive to be their version of Hinduism. When we scan the Vedas and epics like the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, we find a thread of secular ethos. 

In fact, even the Sapta Rishis who composed the Vedas and the authors of Ramayana and Mahabharata do not belong to the Brahmin varna. They actually belong to Shudra and the lower classes of the society. It is a paradox that we find a reversal of secular ethos to the detrimental of the philosophy of unity in diversity.

According to the poet A.K. Ramanujan, a translator has to obey three sets of conflicting allegiances: to the reader, to the culture of the original text and to the text's historical context or tradition. 

Debroy, in his acknowledgment and introduction, says, "Most people thought I was mad, even if they never quite said that." I had a similar feeling when I embarked upon Sree Ramayana Mahanveshanam, which is my own version of the Ramayana. On venturing into the voluminous poem, I felt like being in the midst of a dark ocean the shore of which I would not find. Having gained confidence, I have now started another epic poem, on Draupadi, called Sreemudi Parikramanam. All big ideas will find their own destiny. Hence I am confident that the journey undertaken by Debroy in translating the other parvas will find a happy climax.

Initially, I was surprised that a creative writer like Debroy had ventured upon a translation of epic dimensions.

It requires absolute concentration, discipline and restraint. Having read his book, I must say that the author has conformed to all parameters and excelled as a model translator. He has really carved out a niche for himself in crafting and presenting a translation of the Mahabharata, which is the need of the century. The presentation of a family tree and also the Bharatavarsh (6th century BCE) reflects his insistence on historical authenticity.

I wish that Debroy emerges in the scholarly world of this country to present our past. The book takes us on a great journey with admirable ease.

M. Veerappa Moily is Union law minister THE MAHABHARATA: Volume 1 Translated by BIBEK DEBROY Penguin Pages: 536 Rs 550